marconimedical

India is known for its wide variety of cuisine. A large number of condiments and many varieties of chilies are used to titillate the palate, and so, we often tend to overeat. This gives rise to sour eructations, indigestion, and a stomach upset, and we look for an

antacid, to set it right. The impression that every gastro-intestinal upset, from indigestion to severe pain in the abdomen, calls for an antacid, is erroneous. Although it is true that antacids counteract the excess of acid to prevent sour eructations, frequent

use is unjustified. They hamper the digestion in the stomach.

Hydrochloric acid is the natural constituent of the secretions from the stomach, mean to make the digestive enzymes active. Why then should anybody work against this useful phenomenon provided by nature? Well, we may have to react when the natural phenomenon becomes unnatural, that is, when it is in excess and associated with a disease called peptic ulcer. Peptic ulcer is the term designated to localized destruction of the inner wall or mucosa of the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcer). In other words, it is a wound (sore) inside the stomach or duodenum. A peptic ulcer is usually associated hyperacidity; however, there are some people who have 6 to 8 times more acid than normal, yet do not suffer from the disease. On the other hand, there are others who have low acidity and may have peptic ulcers. A condition related to acidity is gastro esophageal reflux disorder also called reflux esophagitis or heartburn. Its causes and treatment is similar to peptic ulcer.

Symptoms: Peptic ulcers are of two types: Duodenal and Gastric. A duodenal ulcer is associated with a sharp, penetrating, and burning type of pain in the upper part of the abdomen which occurs mostly on empty stomach and is relieved by food. Therefore, patients with duodenal ulcer tend to eat more and gain weight.

In gastric ulcers the pain increases immediately or soon after a meal, and bloating vomiting may occur after meals. The pain experienced after meals is due to acid secretions flowing over the gastric ulcer, stimulating the pain receptor. Patients with gastric ulcer and thin and lean. The final diagnosis is made by examination of the stomach and its contents, and by X-ray after a barium meal and by endoscopy in which a flexible fibre optic tube is passed through mouth into stomach and its end is illuminated to see changes in the inner lining. If the need be, the endoscopist can cut a tiny piece of tissue for minute or biopsy

examination.

Causes: All of us produce acid in stomach but only a few with weak defenses develop ulcers. The causes of peptic ulcers are complex, involving constitutional, emotional, neurogenic, and biochemical factors. Constitutionally, a person having a lean and thin physique, being highly emotional, and belonging to blood group \’O\’ is more prone to suffer from a peptic ulcer. It appears that in these persons the activity of nerve to stomach (vagus) is more, causing hyperacidity, increased mobility or movement, spasm, and localized necrosis (degeneration) of the mucosa. Besides, hot and spicy food, excessive smoking and excessive

use of alcohol, tea, the coffee, and certain drugs like corticosteroids, aspirin, indomethacin, caffeine, and theophylline may also be responsible or peptic ulcers.

The treatment of peptic ulcer consists of general measures and use of specific drugs. If complications like bleeding or perforation at the site of the ulcer occur, surgical intervention may become necessary.

About the author:
AdvCare is one of the leading Canada pharmacy website. First established in January 2000, its mission is to become the number one site for Discount Drugs and Generic Prescription Drugs searches.

Over a billion people carry one or another type of parasite in their intestines. This constitutes one of the major public health problems. In tropical countries like India, intestinal infection is largely due to impure water supply and unhealthy environmental

factors. Worm infestation is an important cause of anaemia and growth retardation in children. Worms produce toxins and injure the bowels. Some parasites may even migrate to other tissues and obstruct lymph vessels. There are a number of worms which can cause infection. All worm infestations must be treated. In this chapter worm infestations more common in India, the drugs used for their treatment, along with their dosage, adverse effects, and precautions have been included.

Roundworm

Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) is a common worm infestation. Roundworm disease spreads through handling of contaminated food or soil. In villages and in areas with poor sanitation, children defecate in the open. In dry climate, the eggs of the Ascaris get airborne and are ingested through the mouth. The eggs complete their life cycle partly in the lung and partly in the gut, and get lodged in the gut as adult worms. The disease is prevalent in areas where vegetables are grown on soil fertilized by human excreta. Adult worms may cause no symptoms in light infestation, but severe infestation may lead to abdominal pain, skin rashes, bronchopheumonia, and even cause obstruction of the intestines. The diagnosis is usually made when ova are found in the stool during a routine examination, or when an adult worm is vomited or passed out in the stools. The adult worm is cylindrical

in shape, brown or pinkish brown in color,15 to 50 cm in length and 3 to 5 mm in diameter.

Preventive Measures

Children should be trained to use toilets rather than defecating in the fields. They should not play in dirt and filthy areas.

Good sanitation must be observed. The Indian habit of washing hands before eating is extremely useful. This practice should be observed religiously.

Wash fruits and vegetables, if possible with potassium permanganate, before eating.

Drugs: Mebendazole, albendazole or pyrentel is the first choice. Piperazine or levamisole can also be used.

About the author:
AdvCare is one of the Canada leading online pharmacy website. First established in January 2000, its mission is to become the number one site for Canadian Prescription Medications and Ontario Pharmacy searches.

Anesthesia is a relatively new development in the ancient practice of medicine. It was not until the last century that doctors harnessed inhalants and other chemicals in order to effectively reduce pain. For the most part, anesthetics are used in order to make intrusive procedures more comfortable for patients, but this can be achieved in a number of ways.

General anesthetics render the patient unconscious during surgery. This kind of anesthesia is used sparingly because there are many complications that can arise while the patient is unconscious. Although that have been many developments in this science since the beginning of the twentieth century, it is often preferred to keep people awake during some procedures.

Local and regional anesthetics are used to produce insensitivity to an area of the body so a doctor or surgeon can do work on a patient while they are awake. This kind of anesthesia is extremely commonplace in treatments that are less intrusive than surgery. Though they are used for similar purposes, there are some differences between local and regional anesthesia, and each method is more suited to certain uses than the other.

Local Anesthesia

Local anesthetics are used to block feeling from a very specific part of the body in order to allow for surgery, reduce pain, or make recovery more comfortable. They are more common than regional anesthetics because they are used for common treatments and as painkillers. They are especially popular in the field of dentistry, where it is beneficial for the patient to be able to position their mouth and vocalize any problems.

This type of anesthesia is most commonly characterized by the small size of the area it affects. An injection of local anesthesia may only numb the nerves of a few teeth or the skin around a small cut. It is usually administered via a shot. However, since its effects are mostly topical, local anesthetics can be applied using an ointment or spray. The anesthesia will only last a short amount of time.

Once the area is numb, the doctor can begin the procedure, and the patient will feel very little pain. In dentistry, local anesthetic is often injected before light drilling and other minor procedures. Many doctors use it to further numb an area during surgery, collect a biopsy, or while sewing up a wound. It can also be implemented after a surgery or trauma in order to reduce pain in a given area without allowing the drugs to circulate throughout the body. This technique is often much more effective for controlling constant pain.

Most local anesthetics are derived from the coca plant. Procaine (which is also known as Novocain) is just one of the many substances in this category.

Regional Anesthesia

Regional anesthetics are used to block feeling from a larger area of the body. These drugs can be used to keep patients awake during surgery. Epidurals given to mothers during childbirth are an example of regional anesthetic. The anesthetic is injected into the spine and a majority of the feeling in the lower half of the body is blocked. This allows the woman to continue labor with less pain.

This state is preferable to general anesthesia because it does not affect the entire body. For some surgeries, the region of interest, such as a leg, the eye, or the pelvis, can be anesthetized, and the patient can be sedated. This technique reduces effects on the lungs and heart often seen during general anesthesia and circumvents the dangers of rendering the patient unconscious. Cesarean sections can even be performed using regional anesthesia; this allows the mother to witness the birth of her child.

Regional anesthesia is achieved by injecting large doses of local anesthetics or other anesthetics into the spine or other area. The desired effect is obtained by regulating the dosage and point of injection. This kind of anesthesia can also be used to treat chronic pain during recovery from serious trauma.

Working Together

In actuality, there is little that separates local and regional anesthesia than the size of the affected area. Both employ the same substances in order to comfort those that are suffering, but they have slightly different purposes. Local anesthesia is a shorter and more controlled loss of feeling that is essential to small medical procedures most Americans take for granted. Regional anesthetics have made certain surgeries less risky by eliminating the need for general anesthesia.

All anesthetics improve the quality of modern medicine and continue to allow doctors to improve lives; local and regional anesthetics are a big part of their success.

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About Author:
Stephanie Larkin is a freelance writer who writes about issues and topics pertaining to the use of chemicals such as

There are about 8.8 million cases of tuberculosis worldwide, more than 40% of these cases are in South East Asia; India has 53.3% of South East Asian burden. Globally, one person is infected with tubercle bacilli every second. Till about the first half of the century, the diagnostic verdict of tuberculosis was considered a death knell. It meant psychological depression, social isolation, and economic hardships for the family. The only treatment available was rest and a protein rich diet, and when possible, the patient was sent to a sanatorium for a change of environment. He would go to any comer of the country to consult the most qualified physicians, the crudest quacks, or priests with assumed healing powers, and was receptive to any available advice. Today, the prospects of a tuberculosis patient have changed entirely. It is no longer considered a dreaded disease but one which can be effectively controlled and cured by drugs.

Tuberculosis, a tissue-destroying (necrotizing) infection, is caused by inhalation of the tubercle bacilli (mycobacterium tuberculosis). The lungs are most commonly affected, but it may spread to the kidneys, bowels, bones, lymph nodes, meninges, or any other part of the body. This infection may cause clinical disease either 1) shortly after inoculation*, sometimes called \’primary\’ tuberculosis; or 2) after months or decades of dormancy, which is erroneously referred to as \’reinfection\’ tuberculosis. Active tuberculosis is potentially fatal and may be transmitted to susceptible individuals. About one-third of the cases are discovered when the patient comes with a low grade fever; another one-third with unrelated complaints; and the remaining are those undergoing routine medical examination. In some cases of HIV infected persons, tuberculosis occurs in the rapidly progressive form.

Diagnosis

A tuberculosis patient may not be aware about his illness as the symptoms like fever, night sweating, cough, and headache appear slowly and are mild in nature. In the severe form, there may be breathlessness and palpitation on exertion, blood in the sputum (hemoptysis), pain in the chest or abdomen and weight loss. The diagnosis is made by a positive tuberculin skin test (Mantoux test), sputum examination for tubercle bacilli (acid fast bacilli), high ESR (blood test), and X-ray of the lungs which shows opacities or cavities (shadows) at the apex or elsewhere.

Treatment

The treatment of tuberculosis consists of preventive therapy and curative therapy.

Preventive Therapy

Preventive therapy of tuberculosis has two major goals: 1) to prevent infection in an individual with a negative tuberculin test but who has had intimate contact with an active case; 2) to an prevent active disease in an individual who is infected but does not have any symptoms (significant reaction to tuberculin test, but chest X-ray is negative).

In children who come in contact with tuberculosis patients, tuberculin testing is essential. If the test is negative, BCG vaccination should be given. However, If the test is positive, a chest X-ray is essential. If this is abnormal, a diagnosis of primary tuberculosis is likely and conventional anti-tuberculosis treatment should be given. If the chest X-ray is normal, then chemoprophylaxis with isoniazid 5 to 10 mg/kg daily for 6 to 12 months is recommended.

Patients receiving corticosteroids or immuno-suppressive treatment, or who develop diabetes or malignancy should be examined for an old \’inactive\’ tuberculosis lesion through an X-ray and sputum examination as it may become active in them. It may be wise to give a course of anti-tubercular drugs to make the patient \’safe\’ and avoid the disease from developing.

Note: BCG vaccination has been used for several decades for conferring immunity against tuberculosis bacilli. However, controversy exists regarding its efficacy. In India, it has been shown to provide protection against tuberculosis only in about 30% patients.

About the author:
AdvCare is one of the Canada leading pharmacy

website. First established in January 2000, its mission is to become the number one site for

prescription drug and drug store searches.

The miracles of modern medicine allow doctors to fix problems in the human body that their predecessors couldn’t even diagnose. The rapidly growing field of medical technology continues to eradicate threats to human life at every turn, but one of the most important leaps forward in medicine has been anesthesia’s ability to keep patients comfortable during difficult procedures.

Today, there are many different types of anesthetics available to doctors. They can be injected, applied topically, or even inhaled by the patient. How inhaled anesthetics do their job stays the same, but which chemicals are used and what procedures they are used for change frequently.

A Brief History of Inhaled Anesthetics

As little as one hundred years ago, reliable anesthetics were hard to come by. Many different ancient cultures experimented with powerful narcotics in order to relieve human suffering, but early attempts at administering these remedies often went awry. Laughing gas, an anesthetic regularly used in dentistry, was not discovered until 1775 and was not put into regular medical use until the 1840s. Other medical professionals would experiment with other inhalants like chloroform and ether throughout the nineteenth century.

Common Inhaled Anesthetics

Nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, and chloroform were among the first and most commonly used anesthetics. The latter two eventually fell out of use because of adverse side effects. Laughing gas is still in regular use as an anesthetic for dentists because it sufficiently numbs without causing one to lose consciousness. This is important in dentistry because the dentist often needs to speak to his or her patient.

Most other inhaled anesthetics used today render the patient unconscious. This is called general anesthesia and considered the best option to long or intricate surgeries. Fluorochemicals are uniquely suited to being general anesthetics because they can easily be turned into vapor and are nonflammable. Many of these fluorochemicals are used in conjunction with each other in order to create effective anesthesia:

Sevoflurane

Desflurane

Isoflurane

Enflurane

Halothane

Most patients going into surgery today receive a cocktail of sevoflurane, desflurane, and nitrous oxide. Though many anesthesiologists use these substances skillfully, none of them are ideal. Some irritate the airways while others have a shorter potency. Some can even affect the organs adversely, so they are used sparingly. Professional anesthesiologists learn how to mix the gasses so that the patient experiences no adverse side effects and stay asleep for the entire procedure.

How Inhaled Anesthetics Work

Inhaled anesthetics is general anesthesia because of the way they are administered. Since the gas is taken into the lungs, it travels indiscriminately through the blood stream. General anesthesia is defined as a state where the patient is unconscious, immobile, and free of pain. Nitrous oxide only has the power to keep a patient from feeling pain.

Once the patient is anesthetized, the gas enters the blood in the same way as oxygen. The chemical moves through the circulatory system to the brain. Though it is still unclear exactly what effect general anesthetics have on the body, it is likely that immobility is caused when the chemical reaches the spinal cord. When the anesthetics find their way into the nervous system, pain is blocked. Lastly, the patient is rendered unconscious by the fluorochemicals’ effect on the brain.

The anesthesiologist will continue to administer the gas as needed by the patient. The rest of the anesthetic will be removed from the body with other wastes and be expelled with carbon dioxide. In time, the patient will wake up with a few minor side-effects. These are generally caused by a build-up of the chemicals in the body, but serious problems are rare.

General Anesthesia and Inhalants

Inhaled anesthetics are not the only way to induce general anesthesia. Some procedures use intravenous application of other chemicals in order to achieve the same effect. Even though these general anesthetics have been in use for some time, they can be harmful if they are not administered properly. This is why anesthesiologists are a pivotal part of the surgical team.

The aim of all medical procedures is safety, so because general anesthesia can cause problems, it is avoided whenever possible. However, there are some situations, such as serious and extensive surgery, in which it is the best course of action. In these cases, inhaled anesthetics allow doctors to gently put the patient to sleep and help doctors make difficult procedures less taxing. Their use makes many remarkable feats performed by surgeons possible.

Most consumers pay very little attention to what is in their purchases, but those who do are aware of the many uses of fluorochemicals. These compounds have found their way into a variety of markets. In addition to being the key ingredients in many medicines, these chemicals are used to synthesize a number of other products.

What are fluorochemicals?

Fluorochemicals are compounds that contain the periodic element fluorine. Fluorochemicals are easy to manipulate because they are the most chemically reactive element. This is due to fluorines high electronegativity. These traits make it possible for each fluorochemical to be completely unique.

Fluorochemicals in Dentistry

Those who doubt the pervasiveness of fluorochemicals in modern life are likely unaware that about 70% of all citizens of the United States have fluoridated water coming out of their tap. The practice of adding fluoride and other related chemicals to drinking water started in America in the time right after the Second World War. Studies from the beginning of the twentieth century confirmed that fluoride helped prevent tooth decay, and some scientists suggested that it be distributed to the general public through the water supply to improve oral health. Today, the decision to fluoridate drinking water is made by municipal governments, but a majority of major cities still carry out this practice despite vocal opposition from those in other developed countries.

In addition to fighting tooth decay through drinking water, fluoride in various forms is found in a number of toothpastes and other oral health products. Its benefits are due to its ability to be absorbed into the teeth allowing it to replace lost enamel. Not only do fluoride compounds make the teeth stronger, but they also disrupt the ability of the bacteria in plaque to make acids.

Fluorochemicals in Medicine

Derivatives of molecules containing fluorine have also found their way into other types of medicine. In fact, researches have only recently discovered how some fluorochemicals can become key active ingredients in breakthrough pharmaceuticals. One realm of medicine in which they are pervasive is that of anesthetics. The most common general anesthetics used in the operating room are fluorochemicals. The gasses sevoflurane and desflurane are both stable and non-flammable agents that can enter the blood stream and cause a human to lose consciousness.

Other compounds containing fluorine are found in cutting-edge drugs. They have proven to be important antibiotics and are even useful in the fight against HIV. They seem particularly well suited to being used as part of anti-inflammatory medicines. They also play a big part in many of the most popular SSRI antidepressants. Fluoro-structures are found in Prozac, Celexa, and Emocal, among others. These chemicals change serotonin levels in the brain in an effort to elevate the mood of the patient.

Fluorochemicals in Other Products

Of course, the pharmaceutical industry is not the only place to find compounds that contain fluorine. Many products contain fluro-structures. There are also many different applications for fluorochemicals in the realm of science because of its unique properties. The uses of fluorochemicals are as diverse as the compounds themselves.

The unique abilities of certain fluorochemicals make them ideal for the world of agriculture. Some are used to synthesize fast-acting fertilizers. Even sodium fluoride, one of the most popular fluorochemicals in dentistry, can be made into a powerful pesticide in the right concentration. Similarly, corrosive hydrofluoric acid is used in car cleaners and for industrial applications like glass etching.

Fluoropolymers are plastics made of compounds that contain fluorine. The most famous of these is the former non-stick cooking material Teflon. The inertness of these plastics makes them ideal for lubrication and reflective coverings in a number of situations.

Refrigerants like Freon are made using fluorine. Fluorochlorohydrocarbons are environmentally sound replacements for chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were banned because of their role in the depletion of the ozone layer. Fluorine remains in the new, safer compounds because it does not harm the environment.

Fluorochemicals and Daily Life

Take a moment to think about all of the products that would not be the same without fluorochemicals. Without fluorine, the medical industry would still be struggling with ineffective anesthetics. Many people would not have life-saving medicines. There would be no refrigeration or air conditioning. Oral health would be in decline, and agricultural progress would be stagnated. Thankfully, the world has abundant fluorine to use in these many essential applications. Hopefully, these important elements will continue to yield new technologies for the improvement of daily life.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a disorder of the large bowel better known in medical circles as colon. Irritable bowel syndrome is not a disease. It can be defined as functional disorder, meaning that certain organs do not function correctly. IBS is a health condition when the bowel overreacts even to a mild stimulus, such as eating or the presence of gas. The nerves and muscles in the bowel appear to be extra sensitive in people with IBS. Muscles may contract too much when you eat. Some of the major symptoms of IBS are acute abdominal pain, flatulence, irregular bowel movements, white color mucus in the stool, persistent urge to move bowels, diarrhea and/or constipation, occasionally heartburn, nausea and vomiting. Women with IBS often have more pronounced symptoms during their menstrual periods. IBS generally occurs in persons between their 20s and 30s, and is said to affect more women than men and the intensity of the problem also varies from patient to patient. But IBS does not damage the colon or other parts of the digestive system nor does it lead to other health problems.

IBS is due to an abnormal, exaggerated response of the muscles of the intestinal walls. It is not clear why some people develop the disorder. Doctors believe there could be a number of factors that may cause IBS – like dietary, psychological, hormonal and genetic factors. There are no prescribed medical tests to determine irritable bowl syndrome. Doctors generally diagnose IBS on the basis of the patient’s symptoms and after ruling out various other disorders – such as colon cancer and other abdominal diseases. Diagnostic tests that may be done to rule out other abdominal disorders include blood tests, stool analysis, x-ray and endoscopy. Treatment for IBS is subject to the intensity of the problem and the degree of symptoms. Some patients may find consuming particular foods as the cause of their IBS and to such patients, some sort of diet control will help to control the symptoms. Adopting a high-fiber diet including fruit and green vegetables, whole-grain breads and cereals will soften the stools and relieve constipation. Avoiding tea and coffee and spicy food and drinking 6-8 glasses of water a day is found to relieve symptoms. Having proper foods and supplements, substituting milk products with soya or rice products, avoiding fresh fruits and vegetables that are high in insoluble fiber and eating frequently smaller quantities of food, can all help to lessen the symptoms of IBS. Many doctors believe that physical stress and mental strain can often aggravate IBS symptoms. They consider stress management should form part of treatment. This can entail counseling, stress reduction and relaxation therapies, some simple exercises and adequate sleep. For some, mere dietary and lifestyle changes may not be enough to get rid of symptoms and medical treatment may become necessary. Generally anti-spasmodic drugs are prescribed by doctors to lessen the involuntary muscular contractions. This will also help to stop diarrhoea and relieve pain. The doctor may advise you to take mild laxatives if you are suffering from constipation or have difficulties in moving bowels. The use of antispasmodic drugs may help patients, especially those with cramps or diarrhea. Antispasmodics are of two groups- neurotropics and musculotropics. Neurotropics, act at the nerve fibre but can also affect other nerves and cause side effects. Musculotropics act directly at the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract, relieving spasm without affecting normal gut motility.

About the author:
Sharon Samraj is an expert author, who is presently working on the site medical symptoms, medical references, medical information. He has written many articles in various topics. For more information about medical encyclopedia, Mental Health, Diseases